The 20th century is known as a period of awakening and radical movements in the history. New systems of thought emerged during this period. Some systems of thought expressed a direct return to man. The beginning of the return to man was set by S. Kierkegaard with his views related to existentialism. The emergence of existentialism as a philosophical system coincides with the period after the First World War. In this period, the loss of previous values, the problem of secularism, (...) and the failure of the Enlightenment philosophy to justify itself are among the main problems. Existentialism began to take shape in Germany and France at about the same time, and in a short time it spread to many parts of the world - Italy, Spain, Latin America, India, England, the United States, Japan, etc. spread to countries. In Russia, the school of existentialism was created by N. Berdyayev and L. Shestov, and the German existentialism was created by Martin Heidegger and Karl Jaspers. The prominent representatives of French existentialism are Gabriel Marcel (1899), Jean Paul Sartre (1905-1980), Simone de Bavoir (1908-1986) and Albert Camus (1913-1960). It was Jean-Paul Sartre who perfectly placed the idea of individual human freedom at the center of his work. There are two important points in Sartre's philosophy: existence in itself and existence for itself. Sartre writes that; what is generally called consciousness is individual. The purpose of consciousness is to make existence for us. This is the fundamental state of consciousness. The main issue that Sartre took into account is that it is impossible to look at the philosophical problems of the 20th century in the context of general concepts. According to the philosopher, the best existentialism is humanism. In addition to his philosophical novels, Sartre became famous for his existentialist philosophy, which he developed in a unique way. He was one of the thinkers who marked the 20th century with his formation of existential Marxism and his political activity. In the conditions of the Second World War, when the concept of humanity was questioned, the work "Being and Nothingness", which is original and intertwined with life in every way, explains the current state of humanity along with Sartre's philosophical ideas. (shrink)

Currently there are persistent doubts about the meaning and contributions of the gene concept, mostly related to its interpretation as a stretch of DNA encoding a single functional product, i.e., the classical molecular gene concept. There is, however, much conceptual variation around genes, leading to important difficulties in genetics teaching. We investigated whether and how conceptual variation related to the gene concept and gene function models is present in school science and what potential problems it may bring to genetics teaching (...) and learning. Here, we report results on how ideas about genes and gene function are treated in textbooks and appear in students’ views and, also, about a teaching strategy for improving higher education students’ understanding of scientific models and conceptual variation around genes and their functions. (shrink)

Einleitung.--Hessing, S. Salve Spinoza!--Brucar, J. Spinoza und die ewigkeit der seele.--Buber, M. Spinoza und die chassidische botschaft.--Droop, F. Fünf szenen aus dem leben Spinozas.--Dubnow, S. Die gestalt.--Gebhardt, C. Der gotische Jude.--Gherasim, V. Die bedeutung der affektenlehre Spinozas.--Grunwald, M. Der lebensphilosoph Spinoza.--Hessing, S. Die glückseligkeit des freien menschen.--Klatzkin, J. Der missverstandene.--Klausner, J. Der jüdische charakter der lehre Spinozas.--Marcianu, M. Einbekenntnis.--Myslicki, I. Spinoza und das Ideal des Menschen.--Niemirower, I. Spinozaverehrung eines nichtspinozisten.--Petrovici, I. Eine Spinozahuldigung.--Rolland, R. Der lichtstrahl Spinozas.--Sass, K. Spinozas Bibelkritik (...) und Gottesbegriff.--Siegel, C. Vom grunlegenden dualismus in Spinozas system.--Sokolow, N. Der Jude Spinoza.--Zweig, A. Der schriftsteller Spinoza.--Äusserungen von: Alfred Einstein, Sigmund Freud und Jakob Wassermann. (shrink)

Salve Spinoza! Von S. Hessing.--Lasset uns gutmachen das Unrecht, von D. Ben Gurion.--Spinoza und die Ewigkeit der Seele, von I. Brucar.--Das Lamm Benedikt Spinoza, von C. Brunner.--Fünf Szenen aus dem Leben Spinozas, von F. Droop.-Die Gestalt, von S. Dubnow.--Der gotische Jude, von C. Gebhardt.--Die Bedeutung der Affectenlehre Spinozas, von V. Gherasim.--Der Lebensphilosoph Spinoza, von M. Grunwald.--Über das vermeintlich Unmoralische von Spinozas politischer Theorie, von H. F. Hallett.--Die Glückseligkeit des freien Menschen, von S. Hessing.--Der Missverstandene, von J. Klatzkin.--Der jüdische Charakter (...) der Lehre Spinozas, von J. Klausner.--Ein Bekenntnis, von M. Marcianu.--Spinoza und das Ideal des Menschen, von I. Myslicki.--Spinozaverehrung eines Nichtspinozisten, von I. Niemirower.--Eine Spinozahuldigung, von I. Petrovici.--Der Lichtstrahl Spinozas, von R. Rolland.--Spinozas Bibelkritik und Gottesbegriff, von K. Sass.--Vom grundlegenden Dualismus in Spinozas System, von C. Siegel.--Der Jude Spinoza, von N. Sokolow.--Der Schriftsteller Spinoza, von A. Zweig.--Äusserungen von: A. Einstein, S. Freud und J. Wasserman. (shrink)

Eski Arap şiiri, Atlâl göç edilen yurt veya sevgiliden geride kalan kalıntılar olarak adlandırılan sanatsal bir olgu ile belirginleşmiş olup Arap edebiyatı alanlarındaki yazarlar ve eleştirmenlerin ilgisini çekecek kadar çarpıcı bir şekilde yayılmıştır. Bu olgu, Batı Afrika şairleri tarafından yazılan Arap şiirlerde de bariz olmuştur. Zira Afrikalı şair, geçmişte yaşadığı değerli hatıra ve anıları hatırlatarak ağlayıp sevgilisinin atlâlleri ve onun evlerinin kalıntılarının üzerinde durmuştur. Bu itibarla çalışmam, bu bölgenin şiirinde yer alan emsal kaside mukaddimeleri, örnekler sunarak bu şiirdeki özelliklerini, tezahürlerini (...) ve anlamlarını öğrenmeyi amaçlamaktadır. Aynı şekilde bölge şairlerinin ilkel tanıtımlarına yansıyan duygusal deneyimlerinde özetledikleri psikolojik ve sosyal nedenlerin açıklamaya hedeflemektedir. Bu araştırmanın önemi, Batı Afrika edebiyatçılarını tanımaya yardımcı olan çalışmalardan biri olması, Arap dili ve ilimlerine, özellikle şiir sanatına ne ölçüde ilgili olduklarını göstermektedir. Bununla birlikte, klasik Arapça şiir yazma becerilerini ve kabiliyetlerini de ortaya koymaktadır. Araştırmanın sınırlarına gelince, mekânsal olarak Batı Afrika bölgesiyle (Mali, Gine, Senegal, Nijerya, Gambiya) ve zamansal olarak ise on dokuzuncu yüzyılın şairleriyle sınırlıdır. Araştırmada Batı Afrika Arap şiirindeki atlâl konusuyla ilgili kasideleri toplamak, önemini ve özelliklerini açıklayıp tahlil etmek için betimsel analitik yöntemini kullanıldı. Yapılan bu araştırma sonucunda bir takım bilimsel sonuçlara ve bulgulara ulaşılmıştır. Bunların en önemlileri ve öne çıkanları şu şekilde sıralayabiliriz: Afrika Arap şiirinden seçmiş olduğumuz şiir örneklerinin değerlendirilmesi sonucunda, Batı Afrika Arap şiirleri, klasik edebiyatında bilinen “قفوا ”, “عوجوا”, “ لمن الظعن” ve “ لمن الطلول” gibi geleneksel atlâl şiir kalıplarını içerdiği de tespit edilmiştir. Batı Afrika şairlerinin klasik Arap kasidesinin girizgâhı ve usule bağlı kalmalarının yanı sıra, bazıları onun yerine konunun özüne girmeden önce besmele ile, Allah'ı övme ve peygamberimize salavat getirme gibi dini nitelikli kalıpları kullanmak suretiyle kasidelerinin girizgâhını oluşturduklarını saplanmıştır. Batı Afrika şairleri, sevgilinin terk ettiği diyardaki kalıntılar üzerinde durmak yerine; kültürlerine uygun türbe ve deniz gibi yerleri üzerinde durmayı tercih etmişlerdir. Ayrıca Câhiliye dönemindeki şiirinde geçen Suad, Hind, Mayya, Leyla vb. gibi isimleri de bırakarak yerlerine; Zeynep, Meryem ve Havva gibi kendi sosyal çevrelerinde öne çıkan bayan isimlerini kullanmayı uygun görmüşlerdir. Böylece şiirlerinde bu anlamda yenilikler yaşandığı söylemek mümkündür. el-Âmidî gibi Edebiyat eleştirmenlerin bahsettiği mukaddime talaliyye’nin farklı anlamları, sevgilinin terk ettiği diyardaki kalıntılar üzerinde durmak, hakkında soru sormak, sevgilinin adı, oturduğu diyarı ve onu çevreleyen yerler, şairin durduğu vakti, terkedilen yeri hayvanalar, yağmur ve rüzgâr tarafından tahrip edilmesi, şair terkedilen eve hitap edip onunla konuşmak ve ona soru sorup sorguya çekmek, ona selam vermek ve dua etmek ve benzer anlamlar Batı Afrika şairlerinin Atlâl şiirlerinde de bulunmaktadır. Bahsi geçen bu mukaddimeler beyit sayısı bakımından farklılık gösterebileceği, ancak bu beyitler genellikle az sayıda olduğu bu çalışmadan anlaşılmaktadır. Şairler, amaçlarına ulaşmak için bu mukaddimeler vazgeçilmez bir giriş olarak görmektedirler. Ayrıca, atlâl şiiri söyleyen bölge şairleri durumu yaşadıklarını ya da sevdikleri tarafından terk edilmeleri şart değil, ancak atlâl şiiri birçok şair arasında kabul görmüş bir sanat geleneğidir. Bu çalışma aracılığıyla Batı Afrika Arap şiirindeki mukaddime talaliye, şairlerin yaratıcılık ihtiyacına bir yanıt ve onların şiirsel yeteneklerini geliştirmek için bir gerekçe temsil ettiği da açıkça görülmektedir. Son olarak mukaddime talaliye şairlerin şiirsel malzemeleri için gerekli bir sanatsal üslubu olduğunu da söylenebilir. (shrink)

R F Dearden; Theory and Practice in Education, Journal of Philosophy of Education, Volume 14, Issue 1, 30 May 2006, Pages 17–29, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-.

This provocative collection of essays written by the influential Greek scholar E. R. Dodds between 1929 and 1971. represents the wide range of his literary and philosophical interests. Insightful and learned, the essays combine profound scholarship with the lucid humanity of a teacher awareof the special value of Greek studies in the modern world.

Розкрито сутність поняття «рейтинг». Доведено значущість рейтингової оцінки для суб’єктів фінансового ринку, зокрема для страхових компаній, потенційних страхувальників, інвесторів та кредиторів.

I defend the suggestion that the rational probability in the Sleeping Beauty paradox is one third. The reasoning in its favour is familiar: for every heads-waking, there are two tails-wakings. To complete the defense, I rebut the reasoning which purports to justify the competing suggestion – that the correct probability is half – by undermining its premise, that no new information has been received.

R S Downie; Professions and Professionalism, Journal of Philosophy of Education, Volume 24, Issue 2, 30 May 2006, Pages 147–159, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-.

What kind of knowledge is medical knowledge? Can medicine be explained scientifically? Is disease a scientific concept, or do explanations of disease depend on values? What is ‘evidence-based’ medicine? Are advances in neuroscience bringing us closer to a scientific understanding of the mind? The nature of medicine raises fundamental questions about explanation, causation, knowledge and ontology – questions that are central to philosophy as well as medicine. In this book Paul R. Thompson and Ross E. G. Upshur introduce the fundamental (...) issues in philosophy of medicine for those coming to the subject for the first time. They introduce and explain the following key topics: Understanding the physician-patient relationship: the phenomenology of the medical encounter. Models and theories in biology and medicine: what role do theories play in medicine? Are they similar to scientific theories? Randomised controlled trials: can scientific experiments be replicated in clinical medicine? What are the philosophical criticisms levelled at RCTs? The concept of evidence in medical research: what do we mean by ‘Evidence-based medicine?’ Should all medicine be based on evidence? Causation in medicine What do advances in neuroscience reveal about the relationship between mind and body? Defining health and disease: are explanations of disease objective or do they depend on values? Evolutionary medicine: what is the role of evolutionary biology in understanding medicine? Is it relevant? Extensive use of empirical examples and case studies is made throughout the book. These include debates about smoking and cancer, the use of placebos in randomised controlled trials and controversies about research into the causes of HIV and autism. This is an indispendable introduction to those teaching philosophy of medicine and philosophy of science. (shrink)

Aim To study the views of people in a largely Muslim country, Kuwait, of the acceptability of a life-ending action such as physician-assisted suicide (PAS). Method 330 Kuwaiti university students judged the acceptability of PAS in 36 scenarios composed of all combinations of four factors: the patient's age (35, 60 or 85 years); the level of incurability of the illness (completely incurable vs extremely difficult to cure); the type of suffering (extreme physical pain or complete dependence) and the extent to (...) which the patient requests a life-ending procedure, euthanasia or PAS (no request, some form of request, repeated requests). In all scenarios, the patients were women who were receiving the best possible care. The ratings were subjected to cluster analysis and analyses of variance. Results Five clusters were found. For 44%, PAS was always very unacceptable, no matter what the circumstances. For 23%, it was unacceptable, but less so if the patient was older or requested it repeatedly. For 16%, it was unacceptable if the patient was young but was acceptable if the patient was elderly. For 5%, it was unacceptable if the patient had extreme pain but was acceptable if completely dependent. For 11%, it was unacceptable if the patient did not request it but acceptable if she did. Conclusion The majority of the Kuwaiti university students opposed PAS either categorically or with a slight variation according to circumstances. Nonetheless, a minority approved of PAS in some cases, particularly when the patient was elderly. (shrink)

R W K Paterson; Towards an Axiology of Knowledge, Journal of Philosophy of Education, Volume 13, Issue 1, 30 May 2006, Pages 91–100, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1.

This original and lively book explores Greek ideas about health and disease and their influence on Greek thought. Fundamental issues such as causation and responsibility, purification and pollution, mind-body relations and gender differences, authority and the expert and who can challenge them, reality and appearances, good government, happiness, and good and evil themselves are deeply implicated. Using the evidence not just from Greek medical theory and practice but also from epic, lyric, tragedy, historiography, philosophy, and religion, G. E. R. Lloyd (...) offers the first comprehensive account of the influence of Greek thought about health and disease on the Greek imagination. (shrink)

The free-will defence holds that the value of significant free will is so great that God is justified in creating significantly free creatures even if there is a risk or certainty that these creatures will sin. A difficulty for the FWD, developed carefully by Quentin Smith, is that God is unable to do evil, and yet surely lacks no genuinely valuable kind of freedom. Smith argues that the kind of freedom that God has can be had by creatures, without a (...) risk of creatures doing evil. I shall show that Smith's argument fails – the case of God is disanalogous to the case of creatures precisely because creatures are creatures. (shrink)

R S Downie; Professions and Professionalism, Journal of Philosophy of Education, Volume 24, Issue 2, 30 May 2006, Pages 147–159, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-.

R K Elliott; Education, Love of One’s Subject, and the Love of Truth, Journal of Philosophy of Education, Volume 8, Issue 1, 30 May 2006, Pages 135–153, https:/.

Published here for the first time in paperback is much of a final and long-anticipated work on philosophy of history by the renowned Oxford philosopher, historian, and archaeologist R. G. Collingwood. The original text of this uncompleted work was only recently discovered in the archives of Oxford University Press. Also found there were two conclusions written by Collingwood for lectures which were eventually revised and published as The Idea of Nature, but which have relevance to his philosophy of history as (...) well. These pieces are included in this volume, accompanied by further short writings by Collingwood on historical knowledge and inquiry, selected from previously unpublished manuscripts held at the Bodleian Library, Oxford. All these writings, besides containing entirely new ideas, discuss further many of the issues which Collingwood is famous for having raised in The Idea of History and in his Autobiography.A lengthy editorial introduction sets these writings in their context, and discusses philosophical questions to which they give rise. The editors also consider why Collingwood left The Principles of History unfinished at his death, and what significance should be attached to the fact that it contains no reference to one of his best-known ideas: that of historical understanding as re-enactment. This volume will be a significant publication not just in Collingwood studies but in philosophy of history generally. (shrink)

R K Elliott; Education, Love of One’s Subject, and the Love of Truth, Journal of Philosophy of Education, Volume 8, Issue 1, 30 May 2006, Pages 135–153, https:/.

R K Elliott; Versions of Creativity, Journal of Philosophy of Education, Volume 5, Issue 2, 30 May 2006, Pages 139–152, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9752.1971.

R W K Paterson; Towards an Axiology of Knowledge, Journal of Philosophy of Education, Volume 13, Issue 1, 30 May 2006, Pages 91–100, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1.

R S Peters; Education and Justification, Journal of Philosophy of Education, Volume 11, Issue 1, 30 May 2006, Pages 28–38, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9752.1.

EDITED BY SLAVENKO ŠLJUKIĆBOOK SYMPOSIUM ON KENNETH R. WESTPHAL’S HOW HUME AND KANT RECONSTRUCT NATURAL LAW.

R F Dearden; Theory and Practice in Education, Journal of Philosophy of Education, Volume 14, Issue 1, 30 May 2006, Pages 17–29, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-.

R K Elliott; The Concept of Development: A Reply to Professor Hamlyn, Journal of Philosophy of Education, Volume 9, Issue 1, 30 May 2006, Pages 40–48, https://d.

R K Elliott; The Concept of Development: A Reply to Professor Hamlyn, Journal of Philosophy of Education, Volume 9, Issue 1, 30 May 2006, Pages 40–48, https://d.

R K Elliott; The Concept of Development: A Reply to Professor Hamlyn, Journal of Philosophy of Education, Volume 9, Issue 1, 30 May 2006, Pages 40–48, https://d.

R K Elliott; Versions of Creativity, Journal of Philosophy of Education, Volume 5, Issue 2, 30 May 2006, Pages 139–152, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9752.1971.

R S Peters; Education and Justification, Journal of Philosophy of Education, Volume 11, Issue 1, 30 May 2006, Pages 28–38, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9752.1.

Jonathan Dancy’s Practical Reality defends a strikingly nonpsychologistic account of motivating reasons for action. When we explain what people do by citing their reasons, we are trying to isolate the considerations that were actually effective in moving them to act. But it is crucial, Dancy contends, that these considerations be understood in a way that preserves their connection to the normative contexts in which the concept of a reason also has a place. The considerations that move agents to act are (...) considerations that agents take to cast a favorable light on the actions they perform, and it is at least sometimes the case that peoples’ motivating reasons are also good reasons for action, considerations that really do recommend or speak in favor of the action that was undertaken. If we make the plausible further assumption that these normative reasons are typically not psychological states of the agents to whom they apply, it follows that motivating reasons equally cannot be understood in essentially psychological terms. The reasons for which people act are rarely if ever psychological states to which they are subject, but facts or states of the world of the sort that are capable of counting in favor of actions, and that in successful cases render sensible or reasonable the very actions that agents in fact perform. (shrink)

R T Allen; ‘Because I Say So!’ Some Limitations Upon the Rationalisation of Authority, Journal of Philosophy of Education, Volume 21, Issue 1, 30 May 2006, Page.

R T Allen; ‘Because I Say So!’ Some Limitations Upon the Rationalisation of Authority, Journal of Philosophy of Education, Volume 21, Issue 1, 30 May 2006, Page.

R Carlisle; The Concept of Physical Education, Journal of Philosophy of Education, Volume 3, Issue 1, 30 May 2006, Pages 5–22, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-97.

R F Dearden; Happiness and Education, Journal of Philosophy of Education, Volume 2, Issue 1, 30 May 2006, Pages 17–29, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9752.1968.

R K Elliott; Aestheticism, Imagination and Schooling: a reply to Ruby Meager, Journal of Philosophy of Education, Volume 15, Issue 1, 30 May 2006, Pages 33–42.

R K Elliott; Aestheticism, Imagination and Schooling: a reply to Ruby Meager, Journal of Philosophy of Education, Volume 15, Issue 1, 30 May 2006, Pages 33–42.

R K Elliott; D. W. Hamlyn on Knowledge and the Beginnings of Understanding, Journal of Philosophy of Education, Volume 14, Issue 1, 30 May 2006, Pages 109–116.

R K Elliott; D. W. Hamlyn on Knowledge and the Beginnings of Understanding, Journal of Philosophy of Education, Volume 14, Issue 1, 30 May 2006, Pages 109–116.

R S Peters; A Reply to John Kleinig, Journal of Philosophy of Education, Volume 7, Issue 2, 30 May 2006, Pages 167–176, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9752.1973.